American productivity and quality center - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 3056 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? The accumulation and use of knowledge is the foundation of human evolution and growth since its very beginning; however, systematic study of managing knowledge as organizational strategic resources or more precisely Knowledge Management (KM) has not been commenced and proliferated until recently. The term Knowledge Management was first introduces in 1986 by the American Productivity and Quality Center (Baker, 2002), and then it has been the much-discussed topic throughout the past years (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995; Davenport and Prusak, 1998; and Alberto, 2000). However, the lack of theoretical understanding of knowledge and practically proven methods for efficient KM is surprising (Holsapple, 2003). Wiig (1999) defines KM as the systematic and explicit management of knowledge-related activities, practices, programs and policies within the enterprise, and there are multiple KM processes being identified: goal definition, identification, acquisition, development, distribution, application, maintenance and assessment of knowledge. Skyrme (1997) views KM is a purposeful and systematic management of vital knowledge along with its associated processes of creating, gathering, organizing, diffusing, using and exploiting that knowledge. Davenport and Prusak (1998), claim that KM is the process of capturing, distributing and effectively using knowledge. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "American productivity and quality center" essay for you Create order Drucker (1998) mentioned in his book, Managing in a Time of Great Change, that knowledge has become the key economic resource and the dominant and perhaps even the only source of comparative advantage, because knowledge is difficult to create and imitate (Peteraf, 1997; and Teece, 1998), and it has to be nurtured and managed (Maria and Marti, 2001). Senge (1990) has warned that many organizations are unable to transform and function as knowledge organization because of learning disabilities. With rapidly changes in technologies, the way information is created, stored, used and shared have made it more accessible and make the national borders are nearly meaningless in defining an organizations operating boundaries. Explicit knowledge is easily formalized and documented (Hippel, 1994; and Duffy, 2000), and can be captured or shared through information technology. Explicit knowledge are usually expressed in the form of data and numbers, and can be shared formally and systematically in the form of data, specifications, manuals, drawings, audio and video, tapes, computer programs, patents, and the like. In contrast, tacit knowledge is difficult to express and formalize, and is thus difficult to share as it includes individuals insights, intuitions and bunches. Tacit knowledge resides in the human and is evolves from peoples interactions, and requires skills and practices (Riggins and Rhee, 1999). KM is a complicated and multifaceted discipline. Scholars, practitioners or researchers may take different perspectives and depth in analyzing the subject. Similarly, KM practitioners may take various approaches to tackle the KM problem. Therefore, the concepts of knowledge and knowledge management are best defined by the people who use them in respective areas. In survey study on KM by Davenport, De Long and Beers (1998), 4 categories of KM processes are named by the participants: Creation of knowledge repositories. Improvement of knowledge access. Enhancement of knowledge environment. Management of knowledge as an asset. These categories of processes can be further divided into sub-tasks. There are various KM frameworks or models and the KM processes will vary a bit. However, the ultimate goal of KM is to provide systematic management framework and methodology to manage the knowledge resources effectively and to sustain competitive advantages. Nonaka and Konno (1998) articulated a well-known model for knowledge creation process The SECI (Socialization, Externalization, Combination, Internalization) model that describes the ways knowledge is generated, transferred and re-created within organization. In summary, the SECI model as shown in Figure 2.4 identifies the following Two forms of knowledge (tacit and explicit). A dynamic and interaction space (transfer). Three levels of aggregation (individual, group, context). Four knowledge-creating processes: socialization, externalization, combination and internalization. These four knowledge-creation processes are considered as the basic processes by which knowledge is created. Socialization: Individuals get together and share their experience about specific tasks, projects or processes in a free and open environment or atmosphere, and in such way the tacit knowledge of individuals is transformed into the tacit knowledge of groups. Externalization: Individuals talk about their experience on particular area or subject and as a consequence of collective reflection members come up with a new knowledge about the addressing area and thus the tacit knowledge is articulated and expressed into an explicit form. Combination: Many persons are working together and each contributes to a particular area of knowledge to make the whole set of knowledge a complete and comprehensive one through collaboration and sharing processes. In such case, the existing explicit knowledge of the individuals or teams is transformed into systematic knowledge, such as a set of specifications. Internalization: Explicit knowledge is transformed into tacit knowledge which is operational in nature. The individual acquires the specific skill and becoming proficiency in particular skill after repeating learning and doing. The importance of a shared or interactive space for knowledge creating is suggested by Alavari and Leidner (2001). They proposed the existence of a shared knowledge space for knowledge facilitation and the applicable of IT for knowledge exchange purpose is questionable without the existence of such space. Many IT applications, particular the groupware applications and portal applications aim to facilitate these knowledge processes namely creation, application, distribution and storage processes etc. by creating virtual collaboration space, chat room, bulletin board etc. to facilitate communications amongst team members. There are various KM models of frameworks that guide the practitioners to implement KM solution or conduct KM research work. These frameworks identify the key processes of KM as well as the various key influential factors or enablers for KM within the organization. These key processes and the critical influential factors interact dynamically within the framework and practitioners have to address these various parameters or processes while designing the KM systems to ensure effectiveness. Commonly identified enablers in KM models or frameworks include management, structure, culture, competence, motivation and reward, information technology, etc. Davenport and Prusak (1998) describe KM as involving organizational, human and technical issues, and technology is always an enabler for KM. The technologies will facilitate the various knowledge processes for the KM purpose, say application of knowledge, creation of knowledge, distribution of knowledge and storage of knowledge. There are three fundamental elements within any KM framework, namely people, process, and technology. The KM problem is tackled from the perspective of a process organization and IT as considered as one of the prime enablers for KM process and related KM activities realization. IT support communication, cooperation and coordination, and allows timely access to information and the sources of knowledge, and is always considered as prime enabler. Knowledge process should consist of the following essential knowledge process as illustrated in the Figure 2.5. These processes are create, capture, organize, access and use. Almost every IT elements would implement these functions within the operating system level or through resources management utilities or applications. Similarly, the human interactive processes are collaborate, find, mediate, facilitate or share, etc. which allow users to manipulate the information. Alavari, M. and Leidner, D. E., 2001. Knowledge Management and Knowledge Management Systems: Conceptual Foundations and Research Issueses. MIS Quaterly, 25(1), pp. 107-136. Alberto, C., 2000. How Does Knowledge Management Influence Innovation and Competitiveness?. Journal of Knowledge Management, 4(2), pp. 87-98. Baker, K., Ed. 2002. Where Will Knowledge Management Take Us? Knowledge Management and Organizational Memories. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Davenport, T. H., DeLong, D. W. and Beers, M. C., 1998. Successful Knowledge Management Projects. Sloan Management Review, 39(2), pp. 43-57. Davenport, T. H. and Prusak, L., 1998. Working Knowledge How Organizations Manage What They Know. Harvard Business School Press, Boston, Massachusetts. Drucker, P., 1998. Managing in a Time of Great Change. Peguin, Putnam, New York. Duffy, J., 2000. Knowledge Management: To Be Or Not To Be? Information Management Journal, 34(1), pp.64-67. Hippel, E., 1994. Sticky Information and The Locus of Problem Solving: Implications for Innovation. Management Science, 40(4), pp. 429-439. Holsapple, C. W., 2003. Handbook on Knowledge Management. Springer, Berlin. Maria, J. and Marti, V., 2001. Intellectual Capital Benchmarking System. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 2(2), pp.148-164. Nonaka, I. and Konno, N., 1998. The Concept of Ba. Building a Foundation of Knowledge Creation. California Management Review, 40(3), pp.40-45. Nonaka, I. and Takeuchi, H., 1995. The Knowledge-Creating Company. Oxford University Press, New York. Peteraf,M. A., 1997. The Cornerstone of Competitive Advantage: A resource-based View. Strategic Management Journal, 14(1993), pp.179-191. Riggins, F. and Rhee, H., 1999. Developing The Learning Network Using Extranets. International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 4(1), pp. 65-83. Senge, P. M., 1990. The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of The Learning Organization. Doubleday, New York. Skyrme, D., 1997. Knowledge Management: Making Sense of an Oxymoron. Management Insight, 22. Teece, D. J., 1998. Capturing Value from Knowledge Assets. The New Economy, markets for Know-How, and Intangible Assets. California Management Review, 40(3), pp.55-79. Wiig, K. M., 1999. Introducing Knowledge Management Into The Enterprise. Knowledge Management Handbook, CRX Press, Boca Raton, pp.1-41. KM DLE Knowledge management is still a nascent organizational practice, so as of yet there is no agreed upon definition for it. Therefore, it is generally described as broadly as possible, such as the following specified by Prusak: KM is any process or practice of creating, acquiring, capturing, sharing and using knowledge, wherever it reside, to enhance learning and performance in organizations (Prusak, 1997). Knowledge does not simply exist it begins as raw facts and numbers. When put into context, this data becomes information, such as the content of documents or records in a database. This information becomes knowledge only after it is combined with experience and knowledge (Kidwell et al, 2000). The goal of KM in the organization is to allow businesses to improve how knowledge within an organization is used and shared. Learning institutions are in the business of knowledge, so it seems that learning institutions would benefit immensely from participating in KM activities. At the Knowledge Management in Education Summit in 2002, the participants agreed that KM practices provide important benefits for educators, including better work processes, improved curriculum, and above all else, positive student outcomes (Petrides, 2003). In an educational environment, part of understanding work practices involves understanding the social landscape. An effective KM tool designed for educators will attempt to address problems (where appropriate) within the social structure. It is easy to overlook the true beneficiaries of KM in education the students since implementing effective knowledge management tools in learning institutions relies heavily on positive teacher outcomes. It is import ant to stress to teachers that by participating in KM activities and using KM tools, teachers have the potential to improve both the curriculum and their effectiveness as educators, which ultimately benefits the students. Tools, regardless of their application, are imbued with knowledge (Baetier, 2000). Tools are designed to accomplish a task, and therefore the knowledge required to accomplish this task is captured within the tool through its design, such as the optimum handle length of a hammer (Baetier, 2000). Computer-based knowledge management tools carry this idea further in that they contain both implicit and explicit knowledge. Implicit knowledge is imbued within the tool by anyone who helped design the tool, while explicit knowledge is stored within the tool by the tools users (Baetier, 2000). Training and education activities are informed by various theories of learning. Constructivists view the learner as actively constructing new knowledge drawing upon pre-existing information and past experiences. As experience is gained and knowledge is built, learning opportunities produce new concepts or ideas (Maughan and Anderson, 2005). Traditional industry and learning institution curricula tend to treat content in an abstract or formal epistemological fashion independent of applications or work settings. KM in the support of task performance must be derived from the activity and involves identifying and capturing knowledge, indexing knowledge, and making knowledge available to users in flexible and useful ways (Siemens, 2004). Emerging KM practices are based partly on recent cognitive science understandings of human capabilities, such as conceptual blending and concepts for learning. KM should enhance individual, group and organizational learning, improve information circulation and even support innovation. It aims to capture and represent an organizations knowledge assets to facilitate knowledge access, sharing and reuse. The management of knowledge requires the ability to describe, organize and apply relationships. At the core of KM is the desire to identify and share knowledge that may not otherwise be found and shared, such as tacit knowledge residing in a single individual or an organizations grey literature usually accessible to only a few of its members. The theory behind knowledge management practice is that knowledge is not an end into itself. When information and knowledge flow can be captured, organized and made accessible for reuse, there exists the potential for subsequent creation of new knowledge (Williams, 2004). The most common used process of knowledge manipulation are capturing, storage and distribution. People use different types of repositories and specialists implement different technologies for organization of knowledge collectors, storage and delivery on demand. The purpose of the process is to improve qualification and to achieve better result. There is a strong relationship between knowledge and libraries. Material stored in libraries contains knowledge and to make this material available is the primary aim of DL. KM and DL could be aligned because they share a similar focus that is to enhance human knowledge. They are also looking for ways to categorize and store knowledge. DL has the potential to facilitate KM functions by enabling barrier-free access to materials and incorporating structured and unstructured information in a way that precipitates knowledge discovery (Rydberg-Cox, 2000). When evaluating research about DL for learning purposes and knowledge sharing across organizations, it is clear that KM and DL for learning purposes could be more aligned. Reasons for this integration include: DL for learning purposes and KM share a similar focus: how to enhance human knowledge and its use within organizations. Both DL for learning purposes and KM are looking for ways to categorize and share knowledge. There is a growing awareness of the fact that knowledge in an organization is distributed among its peoples minds and a variety of knowledge artefacts. Both content management and learning management systems are defined to store knowledge or learning/course components, often at an object level. Because of this, not only KM may fuse with learning management. In the vendor market, there is an increasing demand to content management system to grow closer to learning management system. The APQC defines content management as follows: a system to provide meaningful and timely information to end users by creating processes that identify, collect, categorize and refresh content using a common taxonomy across the organization. A content management system includes people, process, technology and the content itself. The increasing demand to compress the time to develop content for DL initiatives and for more targeted or personalized learning through the use and repurposing of standard based learning objects leads to a quicker unification of concepts and systems. Key issues are: Setting priorities for the investments in KM, learning management and content management, resulting in a holistic approach of intellectual capital management. Developing and managing individuals, competencies and communities. Describing, classifying and managing unstructured content. Creating and managing activities aimed at transferring knowledge to individuals (communities within an organization and putting knowledge to work). When learning management systems are designed to store course components on the object level, in a central repository, the learning management system grow closer to content management systems available. This opens the doors to single sourcing solutions, managing content throughout an organization. Sumner and Marlino (2004) have introduced the knowledge network model that can benefit educational DL in how libraries and library communities: Accommodate and support different types of participant interactions, both human and technology-mediated. Foster knowledge building and community development through specific forms of interactions. Enable participants to choose varying thresholds of entry and ongoing participation. Support participants to make use of captured interactions to inform their current activities. Affect participants views of themselves, their knowledge and skills, and their changing role in the community. Grow and sustain themselves. Predicting the future of a huge and fast-changing area like DLs is a difficult task. However, DLs will no doubt play a key role in creating a perfect information management environment or, as the new terminology has it, a KM environment. KM is the new buzzword, in corporate as well as government sectors. In KM terms, organizational knowledge may be divided into tacit knowledge, explicit knowledge and cultural knowledge (Choo, 1998a, 1998b, 2000). Implicit in this suggestion in the important idea that knowledge is not just an object or artefact, but also the outcome of people working together, sharing experiences and constructing meaning out of what they do. DLs can play a significant role in achieving this goal. Keeping these broad objectives in view, Rowley (1999) comments that KM is concerned with the exploitation and development of the knowledge assets of an organization with a view to furthering the organizations objectives the knowledge assets to be managed include explicit, documented knowledge and tacit, subjective knowledge. DLs, with the major objective of making digital information local as well as remote and distributed servers accessible to everyu user in the community, can play a key role in KM in any organization. In future all organizations will need to have mechanisms for gaining easy access to local as well as global information. In order to create a knowledge-based environment, organizations should also build mechanisms for capturing information on local expertise. Choo, C. W., 1998a. Information Management For The Intelligent Organization: The Art of Scanning The environment, 2nd Ed. Information Today, Medford. Choo, C. W., 1998b. The Knowing Organization: How Organizations Use Information To Construct Meaning, Create Knowledge, and Make Decisions. Oxford University Press, New York. Choo, C. W., 2000. Working With Knowledge: How Information Professionals Help Organisation Manage What They Know. Library Management, 21(8), pp. 395-403. Rowley, J., 1999. What Is Knowledge Management? Library Management, 20(8), pp. 416-420. 3. Prusak, L., 1997. Knowledge in Organizations. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. 4. Kidwell, J.J., Linde, V., Karen, M., Johnson and Sandra, L., 2000. Applying Corporate Knowledge Management Practices in Higher Education. Educause Quarterly, 4. 6. Petrides, L.A., Nodine, and Thad, R., 2003. Knowledge Management in Education: Defining the Landscape. 17. Baetjer, H.J., 2000. Capital as Embodied Knowledge: Some Implications for the Theory of Economic Growth. Review of Austrian Economics, 13, pp. 147-174. Maughan, G.R. and Anderson, T., 2005. Linking TQM culture to traditional learning theories. Journal of Industrial Technology, 21(4), pp. 2-7. Siemens, G., October 2004. Categories of eLearning. Available From: https://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/elearningcategories.htm [Accessed 16 July 2009].

The Different Ways to Tame a Shrew in Kiss Me Kate and The...

There is not only one method to tame a shrew and the movies Kiss Me Kate and The Taming of the Shrew prove that this is true. The question is, which method is more effective, and which method truly succeeds in taming the shrew. To decide which method is the better of the two, the audience has to look deeper into the methods of Fred and Petruchio. They must study the approach of each of the tamers by deciding whether their approach is physical or psychological, honest or deceitful. They must also look at the other methods that each tamer uses and take into account their motives for taming. When all of these aspects are considered, Fred’s method of taming is obviously the better of the two because it results in a shrew that has truly been tamed. The methods that Petruchio uses to tame Katerina in the movie The Taming of the Shrew are simply not effective. By the end of the movie the audience has to ask themselves; is Kate actually tamed or is she just putting on an act? Judging by Kate’s actions it is easy to see that she is in fact not tamed, and is only trying to please Petruchio. When Kate has her speech about how women should treat their husbands, one gets the impression that it was not very sincere. Just by the tone of her voice it seems that Kate is just saying what Petruchio and the others want to hear. Who can blame her? Petruchio’s methods of attempting to tame Kate took a toll on her emotionally and physically. His methods simply sent her to the edge of insanityShow MoreRelatedShakespeares Presentation of the Female Character in the Taming of the Shrew1503 Words   |  7 PagesShakespeares Presentation of the Female Character in the Taming of the Shrew Shakespeare’s Taming of the Shrew explores the role of women in Elizabethan times. Shakespeare uses many themes and imagery in the play and this essay intends to explore how Shakespeare presents the female character in the Taming of the Shrew. 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The Digital Economy Free Essays

string(180) " panicky and concerned about an economic crash, many people are coming to the realization that not only is the digital economy on a sound footing, but it is also going to be here\." In recent years there has been a greater interest in a â€Å"digital economy†. This new economy is surviving and doing well, despite the fact that there has been a decrease in IT investing in the last two years. Even with the decrease, IT is still going strong. We will write a custom essay sample on The Digital Economy or any similar topic only for you Order Now This decrease, which occurred only recently, followed on the heels of a huge boon in IT activity and investment during the 1990’s (Price, 2002). The idea of a digital economy is not new. It has been dreamed about for years. The problem was that technology had not advanced far enough to make the digital economy a reality yet. Now that it has, the IT sector is moving forward in an effect to change the economy of the entire world into a digital economy filled with technology and e-commerce, which will offer great convenience and also great speed when doing business on virtually any level from the simple consumer purchase to the large, multi-billion dollar corporate deal. There are several important characteristics of a digital economy. First, the physical movement of people, things, money, etc. , will not be needed. Everything that needs to be done will be done electronically. There will also be an urgent, rapid globalization of economic activity (Ministry, 1997). In other words, the way that business is done will change completely. Some of that is already being experienced in the way that many people now shop online for items and have them delivered directly to the intended recipients, instead of waiting around in long lines in crowded stores, only to find out that the store is out of whatever it is the person wanted anyway. Digital economy will stop all of that, and it will do much more. That is just a small and simple example. There are, of course, much larger ramifications for businesses that deal with a great deal of money, time, and manpower all over the world every day. Second, contracts and other means of securing and sealing business deals will all be done electronically (Ministry, 1997). There is a concern about this, however, because many people are not comfortable today with even doing simple things like giving their credit card number to an online company to pay for a purchase. Clearly, many advanced safety and security measures will be required before all businesses will feel comfortable receiving a contract or proposal that is electronic instead of in writing. Third, the basis of the digital economy, IT, will continue to grow and expand very rapidly. This will result in many changes in economic activities. Economic rules will need to be created and updated at a very rapid pace so as to keep up with competitors and not get left behind in the information age (Ministry, 1997). People who make the rules and regulations for electronic commerce and IT will have their work cut out for them in this new digital economy. There will be a need for many more rules than the traditional economy has, because of the delicacy of electronic transmissions and the potential for ‘hackers’ to get into a computer system and get a hold of sensitive information such as credit card numbers, bank account numbers, and social security information, among other things. Fourth, and finally, the digital economy will make its way to everyone (Ministry, 1997). Even people who do not own a computer now will find themselves caught and pulled into this changing economy. Some people will resist this change because they are concerned about security, or simply because they do not like the way the world and the idea of commerce is changing. Especially people who have been around since the days of walking down to the corner store to get some penny candy. While it may be difficult to convince everyone, especially the older generation, that e-commerce and the digital economy are good things, it must be done because the digital economy is coming. The digital economy came about slowly, as people looked for new and better ways to do things. As IT expanded, it brought with it change, and a renewed interest in what human beings could accomplish if they simply put themselves to the task at hand. Because human beings decided to find out, technology began to grow at a very rapid rate. Now, it is not that technology is changing so fast, it is just that many different components of it are changing all at once (Harris, 2002). As for the power behind the changes, much of that has come from entrepreneurs and other businesspeople that want to see things work better, faster, and smoother. They are also interested in the most possible profit they can get, which causes them to be interested in any kind of cost-effective technology that can help them reach that goal. The more work that entrepreneurs were willing to do to help themselves, the more they also urged technology forward (Harris, 2002). While the IT sector is not officially in control of the global economy yet, it soon will be (Brotman, 2001). Technology is advancing so rapidly that there is no reason to expect it to suddenly stop, or stranger yet, disappear. Because technology has come so far, businesses must go along with it. They will be left behind if they do not take an interest in technology and the digital economy now. Technology and e-commerce are fast becoming the way that people do business. This trend will only continue and will be very difficult to ignore in the next few years. Without taking action now, businesses will be struggling when all of their competitors have the digital and economic advantage. The outlook is very good for the digital economy. The main reason that this new form of business will do so well is because it is based on a form of business that works and has been around for a long time (Sahlman, 1999). While some people, especially in the United States government, are panicky and concerned about an economic crash, many people are coming to the realization that not only is the digital economy on a sound footing, but it is also going to be here. You read "The Digital Economy" in category "Essay examples" It is around to stay, and the concerns of the government are not going to make it go away (Sahlman, 1999). The digital economy will work because it has fewer barriers to trading and dealing with other countries than the traditional business methods. It will work because it is built on a solid foundation of good business ideas and planning. Most of all, it will work because people want it to. They believe in it and they will see that the digital economy goes forward, no matter what the cost. The digital economy has not quite made it around the globe yet, nor has it accomplished everything it wants to accomplish, but it is still in its infancy. When it finally makes it around the globe and insinuates itself into every transaction that is made, however small that transaction may be, every business transaction will be faster, easier, safer, and more convenient than ever before. That is something that many businesspeople all around the world are looking forward to. So are consumers. No more lines, no more hassles; just the ability to get business done and have the time to go on to something else. All of this has come about because of information systems and computing. Information systems and computing have become more widespread in many organizations throughout the last 15 years and the amount of this has deepened and infiltrated almost every level of organizations (Adams Sasse, 1999). Some of this has to do with the fact that personal computers have become more powerful and increasingly less expensive (Adams Sasse, 1999). This has created the ability to have computing power and management information systems tested and placed into the hands of many more individuals throughout various organizations, and this includes the government (Adams Sasse, 1999). How computers are used and the nature of what they are needed for has also changed recently because computers have come into many more homes (Adams Sasse, 1999). Much of this comes from extending computers from the workplace into home life (Adams Sasse, 1999). Some of it also comes from laptop computers and how they have become so important for individuals that travel and need to take their work with them so that they will be able to check e-mail and exchange messages no matter where they are (Adams Sasse, 1999). Because of all the changes in the nature of computing their use has continued to speed up and spread out to more and more individuals (Adams Sasse, 1999). Many of these are linked to various organizations or they have specific networks that they are linked into which allows them to do more things. The Internet has also become extremely important because people all over the world can work with each other through a computer and this avoids many of the long distance phone calls, business trips, and other issues that would normally have to be dealt with when dealing with a client or customer overseas (Adams Sasse, 1999). Much of the use of computers within the public sector and the government is growing very strongly. One study that was conducted regarding state governments indicated that, in general, all states on average were spending over 3 percent of the budget that they had for their executive branch on the management of information resources and computer use (Adams Sasse, 1999). For all of the 50 states in this country this would come to a combined total of $19. billion (Adams Sasse, 1999). This particular study was taken in 1989 and estimates indicated that by 1993 the number would be $52. 6 billion (Adams Sasse, 1999). This would be much higher today. That same study also examined the type of computer use that was dealt with in county governments because their budgets are often smaller than states. An estimate taken in 1992 indicated that county governments throughout the United States were spending approximately $23. 8 billion on management information systems which amounted to over 17 percent of the operating budgets that they had (Adams Sasse, 1999). Business strategy and IT strategy are often very closely interlinked, especially in today’s global and technologically advanced society. However, the selection of information systems is not always appropriate for the business at hand, and when the strategy and information systems do not mix, it can be disastrous. One business involved itself in the business-to-business (B2B) context. B2B is where marketplaces are created so that sellers and buyers can come together more easily, which helps to improve efficiency, liquidity, and other factors (Putting, 2002). The B2B exchange generally did not do well after a very short time of prosperity, and many people believed that the whole concept was flawed, but it appears that the way the concept was executed and not the concept itself was where the problem actually was. In other words, it was not the idea of a B2B exchange, but rather the strategy that the companies used, that caused the problems for many of these companies. The strategy of the B2B idea was the main problem with the concept. The problem largely revolved around the issue that both suppliers and buyers were needed, but the suppliers would not congregate if there were no buyers and the buyers were not interested if there were no suppliers (Putting, 2002). In other words, both groups had to be present but which group would get there first and how to get both groups there together so that everyone would be interested because a large problem. This problem was one of strategy, as the concept of B2B was strong but it was not well planned-out. In hind-sight, the B2B concept would have worked much better if companies had understood it better before they agreed to it. They did not really understand the concept clearly, and this is part of the reason that there was so much trouble getting both suppliers and buyers to come together at the same time so that they would be able to do business which each other more easily. There were also other reasons that the concept did not do well, and these included the idea that suppliers feared the direct comparison that they felt they would be subjected to and would cut into their margins, as well as the lack of interest between buyers and sellers both in paying any kind of transaction fees for what they felt was a very simple and inexpensive process of matchmaking (Putting, 2002). Another problem with the strategy, and the way that it ties into the IT issue, is that the buyers and sellers market that the B2B concept was attempting to create was begun before the computing and software abilities were in place to allow such a thing (Putting, 2002). It is quite likely in the future, however, that software will be created that will allow for the B2B concept to work the way that it was designed to work. This does not mean, though, that the B2B concept is one that will be revived, simply because the technology is there. It may be something that has already had its time and will not be coming back, regardless of what kind of effort is made to revive it. However, the B2B concept has now gone in a different direction and it may be headed in the right direction finally. Instead of working toward exchanging things, the B2B companies now are more interested in software and various solutions that can help others with e-business efficiencies and business processes (Putting, 2002). By doing this, the B2B companies will be able to build their businesses by getting one customer at a time instead of trying to build all of the marketplace that does not have any customers (Putting, 2002). In a related area, an industrial group that consisted of manufacturers of tools that are designed for the automobile industry collaborated to create a computing environment but they were ahead of their time by as much as two years (Worthen, 2001). Because of that, there was no real way to integrate the systems that they created and many of the employees were afraid that there would be layoffs because the money that was spent – 4 million dollars – would not be allocated for something else and was basically wasted when the integration did not take place as planned (Worthen, 2001). This is another case of taking the IT strategy and the business strategy as separate entities, when they really should have been dealt with together to avoid the problems that the group of manufacturers faced. Although the message is getting across to other companies about what these manufacturers can do and provide, there are still problems with any kind of integration, and this is costing these companies both money and reputation, both of which could be very harmful if too much of them is lost. In both of these cases just discussed, there were problems with the strategy formulation and implementation, as well as the strategic process itself. In other words, there were strategic challenges that were not examined and thoroughly accounted for before the implementation was begun. By far the largest strategic challenge that is facing marketers today is that of globalization (Shaw, 1999). In the next 10 years the global marketplace will continue to grow and as it does marketers must work harder and smarter to come up with new ways to keep their marketing and advertising campaign appealing to the largest number of people possible (Shaw, 1999). This can be somewhat difficult, because globalization means the drawing together of many different cultures and beliefs, which represents a strong and worthy challenge for those that market a product, business, or service to various countries. In a B2B context, these people from all over the world must be able to work together, and this can be very difficult when cultural, language, and other barriers get in the way, and when the strategy has not been carefully planned out. Possibly the most significant issue when it comes to strategy is that of standardization – the product or service must be standardized enough that it will work well for all customers – which is something that many of these companies do not consider before they implement B2B ideas that relate strongly to IT. One of the main problems with looking at this is the evidence that many business managers do not clearly understand what standardization is and therefore the responses that they give when indicating to marketers what they actually want may represent a strong desire to protect their self interests (Onkvisit Shaw, 1994). When they do this, marketers must be careful to make a determination as to whether these business managers really want to market in the way that they are indicating or whether there are other factors that the managers must be made to understand before successful marketing campaigns can take place (Onkvisit Shaw, 1994). Studies that have been done into this issue also failed to address whether there were specific approaches to marketing and advertising products that are seen to be more effective (Shaw, 1999). There are lessons to be learned from this, however, besides the obvious need for standardization. Other lessons include the fact that marketing something new can be very difficult and the companies that wish to work in a B2B context must expect that they will have a difficult time convincing others of the worth of what they are doing. Also significant is the idea that IT cannot always keep up with what these companies want to do, and the business strategy must tie into the IT strategy. If the two are not compatible, there will be a great deal of trouble and a lot of money lost, which many businesses certainly cannot afford. All of this is causing a great deal of organizational change in many businesses. Organizational change is necessary and important and various aspects of change management must be dealt with by these businesses. These include the resistance to change from management and employees, as well as how to facilitate and implement the process of change. Evaluating effectiveness is also important. Change is a reaction to the environment in which one must compete. Because technology is evolving so fast this environment has become fluid and some have difficulty adapting to it. However, today’s business environment demands it. Change also presents challenges, and organizations must use these as a platform to build on and learn to welcome the changes that are taking place. Much of this change comes from external forces such as technology, economics, or regulations and laws that have been changed. This is quite often in the form of computers. However, the fact that laws and regulations change so quickly also has significant impact on organizations. Another area of change is from internal forces and these often deal with problems with processes or behaviors. The design of organizations must continue to change to adjust to new technology and consumer demands and this can have a significant impact on the decisions made by human resources. Organizational change deals with things that encompass the entire organization rather than a specific individual or department. Making employees aware of the necessary changes in advance of them occurring can make the transition easier and make individuals more flexible about changing. Sometimes individuals can bring different perspectives to the situation and these change agents can often help to create more of a catalyst for change in an organization. Training employees becomes high priority for organizations that are undergoing change and utilizing teams for this so that the timing and scope are right can become one of the most significant things that companies can do to ensure that change takes place properly and with the least amount of difficulty. Information systems can be quite helpful for this, but only if they are correctly utilized. There are many different ways to look at telecommuting. Depending on the country one comes from, there are conflicting opinions on exactly what the word means, and the same is true of ‘telework,’ which has also been used to mean roughly the same thing as telecommuting. Some people define telecommuting as an arrangement that allows employees to carry out their work at a location away from the conventional office, either in the employee’s home, satellite offices, or neighborhood work centers (Qvortrup, 1998). Still others define teleworking as a way of working using information and communication technologies in which work is carried out independent of location (Harris, 1998). There are four main ways in which people can telework. Firstly the employees can work from home, liaising with the office by using phone, email, or fax (Nilles, 1996). The second way could be when the employees split the time between home and office (Nilles, 1996). Thirdly there are certain types of employees, for example sales people, journalists, etc. who carry out their work while they are on the move (Nilles, 1996). Fourthly, there is an arrangement called the tele-cottage, which provides neighborhood centers with shared computers and communications resources for the office workers (Nilles, 1996). Teleworking can also be defined as performing job related work at a site away from the office, then electronically transferring the results to the office or another location (Nilles, 1996). During the 1970s and 1980s, telework in Europe was often termed as ‘Electronic Homework’ and was either based on full time contract or on a freelance relationship with the employer (Nilles, 1996). It has been suggested that an adequate definition of teleworking should include three variables: the location of work, the use of electronic equipment, and the existence of a communications link to the employer or contractor (Nilles, 1996). It is work which relies primarily or to a large extent on the use of electronic equipment, the results of which work are communicated remotely to the employer or contractor. The remote communications link need not be a direct telecommunications link but could include the use of mail or courier services (Nilles, 1996). The word ‘Teleworking’ together with various pseudonyms such as telecommuting, networking, flexi place or the electronic cottage, has been used to describe various types of work. The term teleworking has also been divided into three sub-categories in order to specify the many different modes of telework which can be found today (Nilles, 1996). The three sub categories included Electronic Homework, Telecommuting, and Flexi Place (Nilles, 1996). This can be defined as working at home and delivering the work directly to an external customer using some form of telecommunication. Telecommuting is working away from the work place. (i. e from home or on travel, and communicating with the employer with the assistance of computers and some mode of telecommunication) (Nilles, 1996). The Internet these days is a common mode of communication used for this purpose. Flexi place involves no defined location of work. A person on flexi place uses his computer and telecommunication device while working on the move (Nilles, 1996). This often involves the Internet, and this can be dangerous, as many people are not aware of cyber ethics, or the ethical issues that pertain to Internet usage. It is very important that adults and children alike utilize information that deals with cyber ethics so that they are more aware of how to handle problems that may arise (Friedman Nissenbaum, 1996). Many of these people are not aware of how to use the Internet ethically and responsibly and because of this they often do things that are detrimental to themselves or others without actually realizing it (Friedman Nissenbaum, 1996). Within the last decade or so there have been numerous incidence of hacking that have involved young individuals and have received strong public attention (Friedman Nissenbaum, 1996). EBay, Yahoo, CNN, and other various sites were attacked not all that long ago and viruses have apparently run rampant on the Internet in recent months and years. They are very strong reminders of the great deal of damage that young individuals can cause when they decide to ignore cyber ethics and see how much fun they can have instead. According to recent information it appears that computer hackers and viruses cost businesses globally over $1. 5 trillion during the year 2000. All signs point toward a problem that is continuing to grow because young individuals do not view hacking as something that is actually dangerous (Friedman Nissenbaum, 1996). Unless there is a very strong shift in the way these young people are looking at this issue the problem will only continue and will likely get worse. A poll taken of almost 50,000 students in middle and elementary schools revealed that almost 50 percent of them did not see computer hacking as any type of a crime (Friedman Nissenbaum, 1996). Citizenship is very important not just in the world but on the Internet as well and it seems that adults have really got to begin to take more responsibility for teaching children about cyber ethics (Elgesen, 1996). Information technology is somewhat wild at the moment because it is still relatively new and taming it down with responsible and ethical use and guidelines must be done. The best way to do this is by teaching a curriculum of cyber ethics that will began in either preschool or kindergarten and will continue with the students all the way up through their schooling (Elgesen, 1996). This will show not only how to use the technology appropriately but how to look for content and what all should be done to ensure that people are utilizing the Internet logically and safely. Various professional development courses that deal with educators and campaigns that are designed for awareness in communities are also needed in order to help educate many adults about the responsibilities they have when they use computers (Elgesen, 1996). Quite often adults reward or glamorize young hackers even if they do not really realize that this is what they are doing (Elgesen, 1996). The technical abilities that these children have are very impressive but the behaviors that they utilize them for are completely inappropriate for society (Elgesen, 1996). It is very important to begin teaching decision-making skills that are ethical to young individuals with their first exposure to technology. This is largely one of the ways that unethical behaviors and technology crimes can be avoided or at least may be minimalized (Gorniak-Kockowska, 1996). If individuals wait until students reach the workplace to try to teach them proper cyber ethics it will be way too late because ethics and morality is often developed in young individuals by the time they are 10 to 12 years of age (Gorniak-Kockowska, 1996). Technology is very important to help individuals work toward a better world but if cyber ethics are not addressed very soon it is quite likely that technology will then not flourish the way that it was designed to but instead will be fraught with problems and complications that will only make things more difficult. Although teaching cyber ethics is very important, most individuals surveyed recently indicate that parents should be the ones to teach children about copyrighted material instead of allowing it to happen in school (Introna, 1997). These same parents should also teach their children about the rest of cyber ethics and how important they are. Because children use computers so much at schools and because they also have Internet access through these schools it is becoming increasingly more important that teachers and parents both take a very active role in teaching not only safe computer use but cyber ethics as well, so that this lesson is learned well before these children grow up and enter the business world (Introna, 1997). Surveys taken of many adults still confirm that most of these individuals believe it acceptable to download copies of works that are copyrighted even if they are not authorized to do so (Introna, 1997). Intellectual property on the Internet should be respected as well (Introna, 1997). By emphasizing this to the nation’s young individuals and to their parents perhaps more respect will be gained at home and also in schools, making it easier for the workplaces around the country (Introna, 1997). Teachers and parents should begin to work together to ensure that young people throughout the country are only using computers and the Internet for good intentions and are respecting what they find online instead of downloading unauthorized copies (Introna, 1997). The issue of cyber ethics is changing very rapidly because technology is growing and changing as well. One of the problems with it is that the definition of it can be very broad or very narrow and this often makes it difficult for individuals to actually determine what cyber ethics means and what it means for them specifically. In other words, some of them see it as not utilizing the computer to hurt anyone else but others see it as being much more than that by ensuring that copyrighted material and other issues are kept protected (Introna, 1997). When computers first were created there was nothing known as computer ethics because the Internet and other things which could cause individuals to find a great deal of copyrighted material and other intellectual property online was not available (Introna, 1997). Computers were seen as a tool, and not seen as something that could be utilized to harm others or cause problems for various individuals throughout the country or throughout the world. However, it did not take society long to realize that harm could come to people and their property over the Internet. Efforts have been made to stop this kind of behavior and protect copyrighted material, but the effectiveness of these measures is questionable. How to cite The Digital Economy, Essay examples